1. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013. [Google Scholar]
2. Cox BJ, Pagura J, Stein MB, Sareen J. The relationship between generalized social phobia and avoidant personality disorder in a national mental health survey. Depress Anxiety. 2009;26[4]:354–362. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
3. Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Czajkowski N, Torgersen S, et al. The relationship between avoidant personality disorder and social phobia: a population-based twin study. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164[11]:1722–1728. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
4. Lampe L. Social anxiety disorders in clinical practice: differentiating social phobia from avoidant personality disorder. Australas Psychiatry. 2015;23[4]:343–346. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
5. Ralevski E, Sanislow CA, Grilo CM, et al. Avoidant personality disorder and social phobia: distinct enough to be separate disorders? Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2005;112[3]:208–214. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
6. Hummelen B, Wilberg T, Pedersen G, Karterud S. The relationship between avoidant personality disorder and social phobia. Compr Psychiatry. 2007;48[4]:348–356. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
7. Weinbrecht A, Schulze L, Boettcher J, Renneberg B. Avoidant personality disorder: a current review. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2016;18[3]:29. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
8. Asarnow RF, Nuechterlein KH, Fogelson D, et al. Schizophrenia and schizophrenia-spectrum personality disorders in the first-degree relatives of children with schizophrenia: The UCLA Family Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58[6]:581–588. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
9. Lampe L, Sunderland M. Social phobia and avoidant personality disorder: similar but different? J Pers Disord. 2015;29[1]:115–130. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
10. Grant BF, Hasin DS, Stinson FS, et al. Prevalence, correlates, and disability of personality disorders in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65[7]:948–958. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
11. Coid JM, Yang MM, Tyrer PM, Roberts AP, Ullrich SP. Prevalence and correlates of personality disorder in Great Britain. Br J Psychiatry. 2006;188[5]:423–431. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
12. Trull TJ, Jahng S, Tomko RL, Wood PK, Sher KJ. Revised NESARC personality disorder diagnoses: gender, prevalence, and comorbidity with substance dependence disorders. J Pers Disord. 2010;24[4]:412–426. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
13. Tillfors M, Furmark T, Ekselius L, Fredrikson M. Social phobia and avoidant personality disorder: one spectrum disorder? Nord J Psychiatry. 2004;58[2]:147–152. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
14. Quirk SE, Berk M, Pasco JA, et al. The prevalence, age distribution and comorbidity of personality disorders in Australian women. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2017;51[2]:141–150. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
15. Lenzenweger MF, Lane MC, Loranger AW, Kessler RC. DSM-IV personality disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62[6]:553–564. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
16. Lenzenweger MF. Stability and change in personality disorder features: the Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56[11]:1009–1015. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
17. Morey LC, Skodol AE, Grilo CM, et al. Temporal coherence of criteria for four personality disorders. J Pers Disord. 2004;18:394–398. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
18. Gunderson JG, Shea T, Skodol AE, McGlashan TH. The collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study: development, aims, design, and sample characteristics. J Pers Disord. 2000;14[4]:300. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
19. Grilo CM, Sanislow CA, Gunderson JG, et al. Two-year stability and change of schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004:427–438. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
20. Hopwood CJ, Morey LC, Donnellan MB, et al. Ten-year rank-order stability of personality traits and disorders in a clinical sample. J Pers. 2013;81[3]:335–344. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
21. Torvik FA, Welander-Vatn A, Ystrom E, et al. Longitudinal associations between social anxiety disorder and avoidant personality disorder: A twin study. J Abnorm Psychol. 2016;125[1]:114–124. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
22. Nestadt G, Di C, Samuels JF, et al. The stability of DSM personality disorders over twelve to eighteen years. J Psychiatr Res. 2010;44[1]:1–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
23. Olsson I, Dahl AA. Avoidant personality problems – their association with somatic and mental health, lifestyle, and social network. A community-based study. Compr Psychiatry. 2012;53[6]:813–821. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
24. Skodol AE, Gunderson JG, McGlashan TH, et al. Functional impairment in patients with schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159[2]:276–283. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
25. Marques L, Porter E, Keshaviah A, et al. Avoidant personality disorder in individuals with generalized social anxiety disorder: what does it add? J Anxiety Disord. 2012;26[6]:665–672. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
26. Klein JP, Roniger A, Schweiger U, Spath C, Brodbeck J. The association of childhood trauma and personality disorders with chronic depression: a cross-sectional study in depressed outpatients. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76[6]:e794–e801. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
27. Oddo-Sommerfeld S, Hain S, Louwen F, Schermelleh-Engel K. Longitudinal effects of dysfunctional perfectionism and avoidant personality style on postpartum mental disorders: pathways through antepartum depression and anxiety. J Affect Disord. 2016;191:280–288. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
28. Farstad SM, McGeown LM, von Ranson KM. Eating disorders and personality, 2004–2016 a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016;46:91–105. [Google Scholar]
30. Tyrer P, Reed GM, Crawford MJ. Classification, assessment, prevalence, and effect of personality disorder. Lancet. 2015;385[9969]:717–726. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
31. Rees A, Hardy GE, Barkham M. Covariance in the measurement of depression/anxiety and three Cluster C personality disorders [avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive] J Affect Disord. 1997;45[3]:143–153. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
32. Trull TJ, Widiger TA, Frances A. Covariation of criteria sets for avoidant, schizoid, and dependent personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1987;144[6]:767–771. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
33. Nicolo G, Semerari A, Lysaker PH, et al. Dependent personality disorders unlike avoidant personality disorders are not related to alexithymia after controlling for depression: a reply to Loas. Psychiatry Res. 2012;196[2–3]:327–328. [Google Scholar]
34. Skodol AE, Oldham JM, Hyler SE, et al. Patterns of anxiety and personality disorder comorbidity. J Psychiat Res. 1995;29[5]:361–374. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
35. Millon T. Disorders of Personality DSM-III: Axis II. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1981. [Google Scholar]
36. Hummelen B, Wilberg T, Pedersen G, Karterud S. An investigation of the validity of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition avoidant personality disorder construct as a prototype category and the psychometric properties of the diagnostic criteria. Compr Psychiatry. 2006;47[5]:376–383. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
37. Bachrach N, Croon MA, Bekker MH. Factor structure of self-reported clinical disorders and personality disorders: a review of the existing literature and a factor analytical study. J Clin Psychol. 2012;68[6]:645–660. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
38. Saulsman LM, Page AC. The five-factor model and personality disorder empirical literature: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2004;23[8]:1055–1085. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
39. Widiger TA, Costa PT. Integrating normal and abnormal personality structure: the five-factor model. J Pers. 2012;80[6]:1471–1506. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
40. Morey LC, Hopwood CJ, Markowitz JC, et al. Comparison of alternative models for personality disorders, II: 6-, 8- and 10-year follow-up. Psychol Med. 2012;42[8]:1705–1713. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
41. Clark LA. Temperament as a unifying basis for personality and psychopathology. J Abnorm Psychol. 2005;114[4]:505–521. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
42. Livesley WJ, West M, Tanney A. Historical comment on DSM-III schizoid and avoidant personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1985;142[11]:1344–1347. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
43. Kass F, Skodol AE, Charles E, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. Scaled ratings of DSM-III personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1985;142[5]:627–630. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
44. Fogelson DL, Nuechterlein KH, Asarnow RA, et al. Avoidant personality disorder is a separable schizophrenia-spectrum personality disorder even when controlling for the presence of paranoid and schizotypal personality disorders The UCLA family study. Schizophr Res. 2007;91[1–3]:192–199. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
45. Jansen MA, Arntz A, Merckelbach H, Mersch PP. Personality disorders and features in social phobia and panic disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 1994;103[2]:391–395. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
46. Winarick DJ, Bornstein RF. Toward resolution of a longstanding controversy in personality disorder diagnosis: contrasting correlates of schizoid and avoidant traits. Personal Indiv Diff. 2015;79:25–29. [Google Scholar]
47. Gooding DC, Tallent KA, Matts CW. Rates of avoidant, schizotypal, schizoid and paranoid personality disorders in psychometric high-risk groups at 5-year follow-up. Schizophr Res. 2007;94[1–3]:373–374. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
48. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [Third Edition – Revised] Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1987. [Google Scholar]
49. Alden LE, Laposa JM, Taylor CT, Ryder AG. Avoidant personality disorder: current status and future directions. J Personal Disord. 2002;16[1]:1–29. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
50. Alnaes R, Torgersen S. The relationship between DSM-III symptom disorders [Axis I] and personality disorders [Axis II] in an outpatient population. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1988;78[4]:485–492. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
51. Brown EJ, Heimberg RG, Juster HR. Social phobia subtype and avoidant personality disorder: effect on severity of social phobia, impairment, and outcome of cognitive behavioral treatment. Behav Ther. 1995;26:467–486. [Google Scholar]
52. Schneier FR, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, Fyer AJ, Liebowitz MR. The relationship of social phobia subtypes and avoidant personality disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 1991;32[6]:496–502. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
53. Herbert JD, Hope DA, Bellack AS. Validity of the distinction between generalized social phobia and avoidant personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 1992;101[2]:332–339. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
54. Holt CS, Heimberg RG, Hope DA. Avoidant personality disorder and the generalized subtype of social phobia. J Abnorm Psychol. 1992;101[2]:318–325. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
55. Chambless DL, Fydrich T, Rodebaugh TL. Generalized social phobia and avoidant personality disorder: meaningful distinction or useless duplication? Depress Anxiety. 2008;25[1]:8–19. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
56. Reich J. The relationship of social phobia to avoidant personality disorder: a proposal to reclassify avoidant personality disorder based on clinical empirical findings. Eur Psychiatry. 2000;15[3]:151–159. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
57. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4 ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994. [Google Scholar]
58. Kose S, Solmaz M, Ceikel FC, et al. Comorbidity of avoidant personality disorder in generalized social phobia and its impact on psychopathology. Klinik Psikofarmakoloji Bulteni/Bulletin Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;19[4]:340–346. [Google Scholar]
59. Marteinsdottir I, Tillfors M, Furmark T, Anderberg UM, Ekselius L. Personality dimensions measured by the Temperament and Character Inventory [TCI] in subjects with social phobia. Nord J Psychiatry. 2003;57[1]:29–35. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
60. Tran GQ, Chambless DL. Psychopathology of social phobia: effects of subtype and avoidant personality disorder. J Anxiety Disord. 1995;9:489–501. [Google Scholar]
61. Turner SM, Beidel DC, Dancu CV, Keys DJ. Psychopathology of social phobia and comparison to avoidant personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 1986;95[4]:389–394. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
62. Turner SM, Beidel DC, Townsley RM. Social phobia: a comparison of specific and generalized subtypes and avoidant personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 1992;101[2]:326–331. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
63. van Velzen CJ, Emmelkamp PM, Scholing A. Generalized social phobia versus avoidant personality disorder: differences in psychopathology, personality traits, and social and occupational functioning. J Anxiety Disord. 2000;14[4]:395–411. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
64. Eikenaes I, Hummelen B, Abrahamsen G, Andrea H, Wilberg T. Personality functioning in patients with avoidant personality disorder and social phobia. J Personal Disord. 2013;27[6]:746–763. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
65. Dreessen L, Arntz A, Hendriks T, Keune N, van den Hout M. Avoidant personality disorder and implicit schema-congruent information processing bias: a pilot study with a pragmatic inference task. Behav Res Ther. 1999;37[7]:619–632. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
66. Tillfors M, Ekselius L. Social phobia and avoidant personality disorder: are they separate diagnostic entities or do they reflect a spectrum of social anxiety? Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci. 2009;46[1]:25–33. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
67. Carmichael KLC, Sellbom M, Liggett J, Smith A. A personality and impairment approach to examine the similarities and differences between avoidant personality disorder and social anxiety disorder. Personal Ment Health. 2016;10[4]:337–347. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
68. Rettew DC. Avoidant personality disorder, generalized social phobia, and shyness: putting the personality back into personality disorders. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2000;8[6]:283–297. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
69. Carter SA, Wu KD. Relations among symptoms of social phobia subtypes, avoidant personality disorder, panic, and depression. Behav Ther. 2010;41[1]:2–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
70. Lampe L. Avoidant personality disorder as a social anxiety phenotype: risk factors, associations and treatment. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2016;29[1]:64–69. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
71. Reich J. Avoidant and dependent personality-traits in relatives of patients with panic disorder, patients with dependent personality-disorder, and normal controls. Psychiatry Res. 1991;39[1]:89–98. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
72. Gude T, Hoffart A, Hedley L, Rø Ø. The dimensionality of dependent personality disorder. J Personal Disord. 2004;18[6]:604–610. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
73. Eikenæs I, Pedersen G, Wilberg T. Attachment styles in patients with avoidant personality disorder compared with social phobia. Psychol Psychother. 2016;89[3]:245–260. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
74. Leising DD, Sporberg DD, Rehbein DD. Characteristic interpersonal behavior in dependent and avoidant personality disorder can be observed within very short interaction sequences. J Pers Disord. 2006;20[4]:319–330. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
75. Loas G, Baelde O, Verrier A. Relationship between alexithymia and dependent personality disorder: a dimensional analysis. Psychiatry Res. 2015;225[3]:484–488. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
76. Fonagy P, Luyten P. A developmental, mentalization-based approach to the understanding and treatment of borderline personality disorder. Dev Psychopathol. 2009;21[4]:1355–1381. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
77. Antonsen BT, Johansen MS, Ro FG, Kvarstein EH, Wilberg T. Is reflective functioning associated with clinical symptoms and long-term course in patients with personality disorders? Compr Psychiatry. 2016;64:46–58. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
78. Dimaggio G, Procacci M, Nicolò G, et al. Poor metacognition in narcissistic and avoidant personality disorders: four psychotherapy patients analysed using the Metacognition Assessment Scale. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2007;14:386–401. [Google Scholar]
79. Bilotta E, Giacomantonio M, Leone L, Mancini F, Coriale G. Being alexithymic: necessity or convenience. Negative emotionality x avoidant coping interactions and alexithymia. Psychol Psychother. 2016;89[3]:261–275. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
80. Hengartner MP, Ajdacic-Gross V, Rodgers S, Müller M, Haker H, Rössler W. Fluid intelligence and empathy in association with personality disorder trait-scores: exploring the link. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2014;264[5]:441–448. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
81. Beeney JE, Stepp SD, Hallquist MN, et al. Attachment and social cognition in borderline personality disorder: specificity in relation to antisocial and avoidant personality disorders. Personal Disord. 2015;6[3]:207–215. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
82. Normann-Eide E, Johansen MS, Normann-Eide T, Egeland J, Wilberg T. Is low affect consciousness related to the severity of psychopathology? A cross-sectional study of patients with avoidant and borderline personality disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2013;54[2]:149–157. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
83. Normann-Eide E, Johansen MS, Normann-Eide T, Egeland J, Wilberg T. Personality disorder and changes in affect consciousness: a 3-year follow-up study of patients with avoidant and borderline personality disorder. PLoS One. 2015;10[12] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
84. Moroni F, Procacci M, Pellecchia G, et al. Mindreading dysfunction in avoidant personality disorder compared with other personality disorders. J Nerv Mental Dis. 2016;204[10]:752–757. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
85. Huprich SK. Malignant self-regard: a self-structure enhancing the understanding of masochistic, depressive, and vulnerably narcissistic personalities. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2014;22[5]:295–305. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
86. Lengu KJ, Evich CD, Nelson SM, Huprich SK. Expanding the utility of the malignant self-regard construct. Psychiatr Res. 2015;229[3]:801–808. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
87. Howe LC, Dweck CS. Changes in self-definition impede recovery from rejection. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2016;42[1]:54–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
88. Srivastava S, Tamir M, McGonigal KM, John OP, Gross JJ. The social costs of emotional suppression: a prospective study of the transition to college. J Personal Soc Psychol. 2009;96[4]:883–897. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
89. Tackman AM, Srivastava S. Social responses to expressive suppression: the role of personality judgments. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2016;110[4]:574–591. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
90. Gawda B, Bernacka R, Gawda A. The neural mechanisms underlying personality disorders. Neuroquantology. 2016;14[2]:348–356. [Google Scholar]
91. Stravynski A, Elie R, Franche RL. Perception of early parenting by patients diagnosed avoidant personality disorder: a test of the over-protection hypothesis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1989;80[5]:415–420. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
92. Westermeyer J, Yoon G, Amundson C, Warwick M, Kuskowski MA. Personality disorders in adopted versus non-adopted adults. Psychiatry Res. 2015;226[2–3]:446–450. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
93. Joyce PR, McKenzie JM, Luty SE, et al. Temperament, childhood environment and psychopathology as risk factors for avoidant and borderline personality disorders. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2003;37[6]:756–764. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
94. Hageman TK, Francis AJ, Field AM, Carr SN. Links between childhood experiences and avoidant personality disorder symptomatology. Int J Psychol Ther. 2015;15[1]:101–116. [Google Scholar]
95. Rettew DC, Zanarini MC, Yen S, et al. Childhood antecedents of avoidant personality disorder: a retrospective study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42[9]:1122–1130. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
96. Carr SN, Francis AJ. Do early maladaptive schemas mediate the relationship between childhood experiences and avoidant personality disorder features? A preliminary investigation in a non-clinical sample. Cogn Ther Res. 2010;34[4]:343–358. [Google Scholar]
97. Crawford TN, Shaver PR, Cohen P, Pilkonis PA, Gillath O, Kasen S. Self-reported attachment, interpersonal aggression, and personality disorder in a prospective community sample of adolescents and adults. J Pers Disord. 2006;20[4]:331–351. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
98. Allen JP, Hauser ST, Borman-Spurrell E. Attachment theory as a framework for understanding sequelae of severe adolescent psychopathology: an 11-year follow-up study. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1996;64[2]:254–263. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
99. Fossati A, Krueger RF, Markon KE, Borroni S, Maffei C, Somma A. The DSM-5 alternative model of personality disorders from the perspective of adult attachment: a study in community-dwelling adults. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2015;203[4]:252–258. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
100. Rettew DC, McKee L. Temperament and its role in developmental psychopathology. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2005;13[1]:14–27. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
101. Brennan KA, Shaver PR. Attachment styles and personality disorders: their connections to each other and to parental divorce, parental death, and perceptions of parental caregiving. J Pers. 1998;66[5]:835–878. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
102. Bartholomew K. Avoidance of intimacy: an attachment perspective. J Soc Pers Relation. 1990;7:147–178. [Google Scholar]
103. Dickinson KA, Pincus AL. Interpersonal analysis of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. J Pers Disord. 2003;17[3]:188–207. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
104. Fossati A, Feeney JA, Donati D, et al. Personality disorders and adult attachment dimensions in a mixed psychiatric sample: a multivariate study. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2003;191[1]:30–37. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
105. MacDonald K, Berlow R, Thomas ML. Attachment, affective temperament, and personality disorders: a study of their relationships in psychiatric outpatients. J Affect Disord. 2013;151[3]:932–941. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
106. Bowles DP, Meyer B. Attachment priming and avoidant personality features as predictors of social-evaluation biases. J Pers Disord. 2008;22[1]:72–88. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
107. Eikenaes I, Egeland J, Hummelen B, Wilberg T. Avoidant personality disorder versus social phobia: the significance of childhood neglect. PLoS One. 2015;10[3]:e0122846. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
108. Allen JG, Coyne L, Huntoon J. Complex posttraumatic stress DISORDER in women from a psychometric perspective. J Pers Assess. 1998;70[2]:277–298. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
109. Meyer B, Ajchenbrenner M, Bowles DP. Sensory sensitivity, attachment experiences, and rejection responses among adults with borderline and avoidant features. J Pers Disord. 2005;19[6]:641–658. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
110. Strauss BM, Mestel R, Kirchmann HA. Changes of attachment status among women with personality disorders undergoing inpatient treatment. Couns Psychother Res. 2011;11[4]:275–283. [Google Scholar]
111. Bartholomew K, Horowitz LM. Attachment styles among young adults: a test of a four-category model. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1991;61[2]:226–244. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
112. Nakash-Eisikovits O, Dutra L, Westen D. Relationship between attachment patterns and personality pathology in adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41[9]:1111–1123. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
113. Riggs SA, Paulson A, Tunnell E, Sahl G, Atkison H, Ross CA. Attachment, personality, and psychopathology among adult inpatients: self-reported romantic attachment style versus Adult Attachment Interview states of mind. Dev Psychopathol. 2007;19[1]:263–291. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
114. Lafreniere P. A functionalist perspective on social anxiety and avoidant personality disorder. Dev Psychopathol. 2009;21[4]:1065–1082. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
115. Beck A, Freeman A, Associates . Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorders. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 1990. [Google Scholar]
116. Meyer B, Carver CS. Negative childhood accounts, sensitivity, and pessimism: a study of avoidant personality disorder features in college students. J Pers Disord. 2000;14[3]:233–248. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
117. Eggum ND, Eisenberg N, Spinrad TL, et al. Predictors of withdrawal: possible precursors of avoidant personality disorder. Dev Psychopathol. 2009;21[3]:815–838. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
118. Griego J, Stewart SE, Coolidge FL. A convergent validity study of Cloninger’s temperament and character inventory with the coolidge axis II inventory. J Pers Disord. 1999;13[3]:257. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
119. Coplan RJ, Wilson J, Frohlick SL, Zelenski J. A person-oriented analysis of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation in children. Pers Indiv Diff. 2006;41[5]:917–927. [Google Scholar]
120. Asendorpf JB. Abnormal shyness in children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1993;34[7]:1069–1083. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
121. Gjerde L, Czajkowski N, Roysamb E, et al. The heritability of avoidant and dependent personality disorder assessed by personal interview and questionnaire. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2012;126[6]:448–457. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
122. Drago A, Marogna C, Sogaard HJ. A review of characteristics and treatments of the Avoidant Personality Disorder. Could the DBT be an option? Int J Psychol Psychoanalysis. 2016;2[1]:13. [Google Scholar]
123. Kamaradova D, Prasko J, Sandoval A, Latalova K. Therapeutic response to complex cognitive-behavioral and pharmacological treatment in patients with social phobia. Activ Nerv Super Rediviva. 2014;56[3–4]:91–99. [Google Scholar]
124. Hope DA, Herbert JD, White C. Diagnostic subtype, avoidant personality disorder, and efficacy of cognitive-behavioral group therapy for social phobia. Cognit Ther Res. 1995;19:399–417. [Google Scholar]
125. van Velzen CJ, Emmelkamp PM, Scholing A. The impact of personality disorders on behavioral treatment outcome for social phobia. Behav Res Ther. 1997;35:889–900. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
126. Fava GA, Grandi S, Rafanelli C, Ruini C, Conti S, Belluardo P. Long-term outcome of social phobia treated by exposure. Psychol Med. 2001;31[5]:899–905. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
127. Alden L. Short-term structured treatment for avoidant personality disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1989;57[6]:756–764. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
128. Eikenaes I, Gude T, Hoffart A. Integrated wilderness therapy for avoidant personality disorder. Nord J Psychiatry. 2006;60[4]:275–281. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
129. Feske U, Perry KJ, Chambless DL, Renneberg B, Goldstein AJ. Avoidant personality disorder as a predictor for treatment outcome among generalized social phobics. J Pers Disord. 1996;10:174–184. [Google Scholar]
130. Blanco C, Xu Y, Schneier FR, Okuda M, Liu SM, Heimberg RG. Predictors of persistence of social anxiety disorder: a national study. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45[12]:1557–1563. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
131. Cox BJ, Turnbull DL, Robinson JA, Grant BF, Stein MB. The effect of avoidant personality disorder on the persistence of generalized social anxiety disorder in the general population: results from a longitudinal, nationally representative mental health survey. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28:250–255. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
132. Huppert JD, Strunk DR, Ledley DR, Davidson JR, Foa EB. Generalized social anxiety disorder and avoidant personality disorder: Structural analysis and treatment outcome. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25[5]:441–448. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
133. Herpertz SC, Zanarini M, Schulz CS, et al. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry [WFSBP] guidelines for biological treatment of personality disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2007;8[4]:212–244. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
134. Canton J, Scott KM, Glue P. Optimal treatment of social phobia: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2012;8:203–215. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
135. Ipser JC, Kariuki CM, Stein DJ. Pharmacotherapy for social anxiety disorder: a systematic review. Expert Rev Neurother. 2008;8[2]:235–257. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
136. Mayo-Wilson E, Dias S, Mavranezouli I, et al. Psychological and pharmacological interventions for social anxiety disorder in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014;1[5]:368–376. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
137. Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Balkom AJ. Pharmacotherapy for social phobia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;[4]:CD001206. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
138. Blanco C, Schneier FR, Schmidt A, et al. Pharmacological treatment of social anxiety disorder: a meta-analysis. Depress Anxiety. 2003;18[1]:29–40. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
139. Emmelkamp PM, Benner A, Kuipers A, Feiertag GA, Koster HC, van Apeldoorn FJ. Comparison of brief dynamic and cognitive-behavioural therapies in avoidant personality disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2006;189:60–64. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
140. Stravynski A, Belisle M, Marcouiller M, Lavallee YJ, Elie R. The treatment of avoidant personality disorder by social skills training in the clinic or in real-life setting. Can J Psychiatry. 1994;39:377–383. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
141. Barber JP, Morse JQ, Krakauer ID, Chittams J, Crits-Christoph K. Change in obsessive-compulsive and avoidant personality disorders following time-limited supportive-expressive therapy. Psychotherapy. 1997;34:133–143. [Google Scholar]
142. Kvarstein EH, Arstein KV, Nordviste O, Dragland L, Wilberg T. Outpatient psychodynamic group psychotherapy – outcomes related to personality disorder, severity, age and gender. Personal Ment Health. 2017;11[1]:37–50. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
143. Balje A, Greeven A, van Giezen A, Korrelboom K, Arntz A, Spinhoven P. Group schema therapy versus group cognitive behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder with comorbid avoidant personality disorder: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2016;17 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
144. Bamelis LL, Evers SM, Spinhoven P, Arntz A. Results of a multicenter randomized controlled trial of the clinical effectiveness of schema therapy for personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2014;171[3]:305–322. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
145. Chan CC, Bach PA, Bedwell JS. An integrative approach using third-generation cognitive-behavioral therapies for avoidant personality disorder. Clin Case Stud. 2015:1–16. [Google Scholar]
146. Pos AE. Emotion focused therapy for avoidant personality disorder: pragmatic considerations for working with experientially avoidant clients. J Contem Psychother. 2014;44[2]:127–139. [Google Scholar]
147. Price M, Tone EB, Anderson PL. Vigilant and avoidant attention biases as predictors of response to cognitive behavioral therapy for social phobia. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28[4]:349–353. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
148. Dimaggio G, D’Urzo M, Pasinetti M, et al. Metacognitive interpersonal therapy for co-occurrent avoidant personality disorder and substance abuse. J Clin Psychol. 2015;71[2]:157–166. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
149. Herbert JD, Gaudiano BA, Rheingold AA, Myers VH, Dalrymple K, Nolan EM. Social skills training augments the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral group therapy for social anxiety disorder. Behav Ther. 2005;36[2]:125–138. [Google Scholar]
150. Sheldon AE, West M. Attachment pathology and low social skills in avoidant personality disorder: an exploratory study. Can J Psychiatry. 1990;35[7]:596–599. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
151. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders [Third Edition] Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1980. [Google Scholar]