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• are internalized attitudes about what is right and wrong, ethical and unethical, moral and immoral.
• Examples include fairness, justice, honesty, freedom, equality, humanitarianism, loyalty, patriotism, progress, self-fulfillment, excellence, pragmatism, courtesy, politeness, and cooperation.
• Values are important because they influence a person's preferences, perception of problems, and choice of behavior.
• Organizational culture is usually defined as the shared values and beliefs of members [Schein, 1992; Trice & Beyer, 1991].
• Cultural values can enhance the performance of an organization if they are consistent with the types of processes needed to accomplish the mission and adapt to internal and external challenges [Gordon & DiTomaso, 1992; Kotter & Heskett, 1992].
• For example, shared values such as flexibility, creativity, and entrepreneurial initiative
can facilitate innovation and organizational learning [Baer & Frese, 2003].
• Shared values about reliability, meeting deadlines, error- free performance, controlling costs, and responsible use of resources, and adherence to best practices and standard procedures can enhance efficiency [Miron, Erez, & Naveh, 2004].
• A second major program of research on leadership behavior was carried out by researchers at the University of Michigan at
approximately the same time as the Ohio State leadership studies.
• The focus of the Michigan research was the identification of relationships among leader behavior, group processes, and measures of group performance.
• The initial research was a series of field studies with a variety of leaders, including section managers in an insurance company [Katz, Maccoby, & Morse, 1950], supervisors in a large manufacturing company [Katz & Kahn, 1952], and supervisors of railroad section
gangs [Katz, Maccoby, Gurin, & Floor, 1951].
bThe target person becomes committed to support and implement proposals espoused by the agent because they appear to be intrinsically desirable and correct in relation to the target's values, beliefs, and self-image. In effect, the agent's proposal [e.g., an objective, plan, strategy, policy, procedure] becomes linked to the target person's underlying values and beliefs. Commitment occurs regardless of whether any tangible benefit is expected, and the target's loyalty is to the ideas themselves, not to the agent who communicates them.
• Transformational leaders probably do more things that will empower followers and make them less dependent on the leader, such as delegating significant authority to individuals, developing follower skills and self-confidence, creating self-managed teams, providing direct access to sensitive information, eliminating unnecessary
controls, and building a strong culture to support empowerment.
• Charismatic leaders probably do more things that foster an image of extraordinary competence for the leader, such as impression management, information restriction, unconventional behavior, and personal risk taking.